Opening materials
 .1 Preface
 .2 Thanks
 .3 Autobiography
 .4 Recommended Reading
  .4.1 General Information
  .4.2 Sound Recording
  .4.3 Analog Electronics
  .4.4 Psychoacoustics
  .4.5 Acoustics
  .4.6 Digital Audio and DSP
  .4.7 Electroacoustic Measurements
 .5 Symbols and Abbreviations
1 Introduction to Units, Geometry, Math and Calculus
 1.1 Units
  1.1.1 SI
  1.1.2 Time
  1.1.3 Length
  1.1.4 Mass
  1.1.5 Force
  1.1.6 Other systems
 1.2 Geometry
  1.2.1 Right Triangles
  1.2.2 Slope
 1.3 Exponents
 1.4 Logarithms
  1.4.1 Warning
 1.5 Trigonometric Functions
  1.5.1 Radians
  1.5.2 Phase vs. Addition
 1.6 Complex Numbers
  1.6.1 Whole Numbers and Integers
  1.6.2 Rational Numbers
  1.6.3 Irrational Numbers
  1.6.4 Real Numbers
  1.6.5 Imaginary Numbers
  1.6.6 Complex numbers
  1.6.7 Complex Math Part 1 – Addition
  1.6.8 Complex Math Part 2 – Multiplication
  1.6.9 Complex Math Part 3 – Some Identity Rules
  1.6.10 Complex Math Part 4 – Inverse Rules
  1.6.11 Complex Conjugates
  1.6.12 Absolute Value (also known as the Modulus)
  1.6.13 Complex notation or... Who cares?
 1.7 Euler’s Identity
  1.7.1 Who cares?
 1.8 Binary, Decimal and Hexadecimal
  1.8.1 Decimal (Base 10)
  1.8.2 Binary (Base 2)
  1.8.3 Hexadecimal (Base 16)
  1.8.4 Other Bases
 1.9 Intuitive Calculus
  1.9.1 Functions
  1.9.2 Limit
  1.9.3 Derivation and Slope
  1.9.4 Sigma - Σ
  1.9.5 Delta - Δ
  1.9.6 Integration and Area
  1.9.7 Suggested Reading List
 1.10 Scientific Notation and Prefixes
  1.10.1 Scientific notation
  1.10.2 Prefixes
2 Analog Electronics
 2.1 Basic Electrical Concepts
  2.1.1 Introduction
  2.1.2 Current and EMF (Voltage)
  2.1.3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
  2.1.4 Power and Watt’s Law
  2.1.5 Alternating vs. Direct Current
  2.1.6 RMS
  2.1.7 Suggested Reading List
 2.2 The Decibel
  2.2.1 Gain
  2.2.2 Power and Bels
  2.2.3 dBspl
  2.2.4 dB HL
  2.2.5 dBm
  2.2.6 dBV
  2.2.7 dBu
  2.2.8 dBFS
  2.2.9 Addendum: “Professional” vs. “Consumer” Levels
  2.2.10 The Summary
 2.3 Basic Circuits / Series vs. Parallel
  2.3.1 Introduction
  2.3.2 Series circuits – from the point of view of the current
  2.3.3 Series circuits – from the point of view of the voltage
  2.3.4 Parallel circuits – from the point of view of the voltage
  2.3.5 Parallel circuits – from the point of view of the current
  2.3.6 Suggested Reading List
 2.4 Capacitors
  2.4.1 Electrolytic Capacitors
  2.4.2 Suggested Reading List
 2.5 Passive RC Filters
  2.5.1 Another way to consider this...
  2.5.2 Suggested Reading List
 2.6 Electromagnetism
  2.6.1 Suggested Reading List
 2.7 Inductors
  2.7.1 Impedance
  2.7.2 RL Filters
  2.7.3 Inductors in Series and Parallel
  2.7.4 Inductors vs. Capacitors
  2.7.5 Suggested Reading List
 2.8 Transformers
  2.8.1 Suggested Reading List
 2.9 Rectifiers and Power Supplies
 2.10 Operational Amplifiers
  2.10.1 Introduction
  2.10.2 Schematic representation
  2.10.3 Comparators
  2.10.4 Inverting Amplifier
  2.10.5 Non-Inverting Amplifier
  2.10.6 Voltage Follower
  2.10.7 Leftovers
  2.10.8 Mixing Amplifier
  2.10.9 Differential Amplifier
  2.10.10 Suggested Reading List
 2.11 Op Amp Characteristics and Specifications
  2.11.1 Introduction
  2.11.2 Maximum Supply Voltage
  2.11.3 Maximum Differential Input Voltage
  2.11.4 Output Short-Circuit Duration
  2.11.5 Input Resistance
  2.11.6 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
  2.11.7 Input Voltage Range (Operating Common-Mode Range)
  2.11.8 Output Voltage Swing
  2.11.9 Output Resistance
  2.11.10 Open Loop Voltage Gain
  2.11.11 Gain Bandwidth Product (GBP)
  2.11.12 Slew Rate
  2.11.13 Suggested Reading List
 2.12 Practical Op Amp Applications
  2.12.1 Active Filters
  2.12.2 Higher-order filters
  2.12.3 Bandpass filters
  2.12.4 Suggested Reading List
3 Acoustics
 3.1 Introduction
  3.1.1 Pressure
  3.1.2 Simple Harmonic Motion
  3.1.3 Damping
  3.1.4 Harmonics
  3.1.5 Overtones
  3.1.6 Longitudinal vs. Transverse Waves
  3.1.7 Displacement vs. Velocity
  3.1.8 Amplitude
  3.1.9 Frequency and Period
  3.1.10 Frequency vs. Pitch
  3.1.11 Angular frequency
  3.1.12 Negative Frequency
  3.1.13 Speed of Sound
  3.1.14 Wavelength
  3.1.15 Acoustic Wavenumber
  3.1.16 Wave Addition and Subtraction
  3.1.17 Time vs. Frequency
  3.1.18 Impulse response
  3.1.19 Noise Spectra
  3.1.20 Amplitude vs. Distance
  3.1.21 Free Field
  3.1.22 Diffuse Field
  3.1.23 Potential and Kinetic Energy
  3.1.24 An Intuitive Introduction to Acoustical and Mechanical Resistance and Reactance
 3.2 Acoustic Reflection and Absorption
  3.2.1 Acoustical Impedance Revisited
  3.2.2 Reflection and Transmission Coefficients
  3.2.3 Absorption Coefficient
  3.2.4 Specular Reflections and Comb Filters
  3.2.5 Huygen’s Wave Theory
 3.3 Specular and Diffused Reflections
  3.3.1 Specular Reflections and Snell’s Law
  3.3.2 Diffused Reflections and Lambert’s Law
  3.3.3 Reading List
 3.4 Diffraction of Sound Waves
  3.4.1 Reading List
 3.5 Struck and Plucked Strings
  3.5.1 Travelling waves and reflections
  3.5.2 Standing waves (aka Resonant Frequencies)
  3.5.3 Impulse Response vs. Resonance
  3.5.4 Tuning the string
  3.5.5 Harmonics in the real-world
  3.5.6 Reading List
 3.6 Waves in a Tube (Woodwind Instruments)
  3.6.1 Waveguides
  3.6.2 Resonance in a closed pipe
  3.6.3 Open Pipes
  3.6.4 Reading List
 3.7 Helmholtz Resonators
  3.7.1 Reading List
 3.8 Characteristics of a Vibrating Surface
  3.8.1 Reading List
 3.9 Bowed Strings
  3.9.1 Reading List
 3.10 Pitch and Tuning Systems
  3.10.1 Introduction
  3.10.2 Pythagorean Temperament
  3.10.3 Just Temperament
  3.10.4 Meantone Temperaments
  3.10.5 Equal Temperament
  3.10.6 Cents
  3.10.7 Suggested Reading List
 3.11 Room Acoustics - Reflections, Resonance and Reverberation
  3.11.1 Early Reflections
  3.11.2 Reverberation
  3.11.3 Resonance and Room Modes
  3.11.4 Schroeder frequency
  3.11.5 Critical Distance
  3.11.6 Reading List
 3.12 Sound Transmission
  3.12.1 Airborne sound
  3.12.2 Impact noise
  3.12.3 Reading List
 3.13 Desirable Characteristics of Rooms and Halls
  3.13.1 Reading List
4 Statistics
 4.1 Why do I need to know statistics?
 4.2 Population
 4.3 Sample
 4.4 Mean
  4.4.1 Population mean
  4.4.2 Sample mean
 4.5 Median
 4.6 Mode
 4.7 Range
 4.8 Deviation
 4.9 Variance
 4.10 Standard deviation
 4.11 Standard error
 4.12 Percentile
 4.13 c² or Chi-Square distribution
 4.14 Correlation Coefficient
 4.15 Coherence
 4.16 Probability Distribution Functions
 4.17 Suggested Reading List
5 Physiological acoustics, psychoacoustics and perception
 5.1 What’s the difference?
 5.2 How your ears work
  5.2.1 Head Related Transfer Functions (HRTF’s)
  5.2.2 Suggested Reading List
 5.3 Human Response Characteristics
  5.3.1 Introduction
  5.3.2 Frequency Range
  5.3.3 Dynamic Range
 5.4 Loudness
  5.4.1 Threshold of Hearing
  5.4.2 dB HL
  5.4.3 Phons
 5.5 Weighting Curves
 5.6 Masking and Critical Bands
 5.7 Localization
  5.7.1 Cone of Confusion
  5.7.2 Suggested Reading List
 5.8 Precedence Effect
 5.9 Distance Perception
  5.9.1 Reflection patterns
  5.9.2 Direct-to-reverberant ratio
  5.9.3 Sound pressure level
  5.9.4 High-frequency content
  5.9.5 Suggested Reading List
 5.10 Listening tests
  5.10.1 A short mis-informed history
  5.10.2 Filter model
  5.10.3 Variables
  5.10.4 Psychometric function
  5.10.5 Scaling methods
  5.10.6 Hedonic tests
  5.10.7 Non-hedonic tests
  5.10.8 Types of subjects
  5.10.9 Some standard test types
  5.10.10 Testing for stimulus attributes
  5.10.11 Randomization
  5.10.12 Analysis
  5.10.13 Common pitfalls
  5.10.14 Suggested Reading List
6 Electroacoustics
 6.1 Filters and Equalizers
  6.1.1 Introduction
  6.1.2 Filters
  6.1.3 Equalizers
  6.1.4 Phase response
  6.1.5 Applications
  6.1.6 Beware! Q is not constant!
  6.1.7 Further reading
 6.2 Compressors, Limiters, Expanders and Gates
  6.2.1 What a compressor does.
  6.2.2 The Nitty-Gritty
  6.2.3 How compressors compress
  6.2.4 Suggested Reading List
 6.3 Analog Tape
  6.3.1 The simple story
  6.3.2 Some more details
  6.3.3 Hysteresis
  6.3.4 M-H curve
  6.3.5 DC Bias
  6.3.6 AC Bias
  6.3.7 Playback
  6.3.8 Tape recorder calibration
  6.3.9 Suggested Reading List
 6.4 Sources of Noise
  6.4.1 Introduction
  6.4.2 EMI Transmission
  6.4.3 Suggested Reading List
 6.5 Reducing Noise - Shielding, Balancing and Grounding
  6.5.1 Shielding
  6.5.2 Balanced transmission lines
  6.5.3 Grounding
  6.5.4 Suggested Reading List
 6.6 Microphones - Transducer type
  6.6.1 Introduction
  6.6.2 Dynamic Microphones
  6.6.3 Condenser Microphones
  6.6.4 Phantom Power
  6.6.5 Suggested Reading List
 6.7 Microphones - Directional Characteristics
  6.7.1 Introduction
  6.7.2 Pressure Transducers
  6.7.3 Pressure Gradient Transducers
  6.7.4 Combinations of Pressure and Pressure Gradient
  6.7.5 General Sensitivity Equation
  6.7.6 Do-It-Yourself Polar Patterns
  6.7.7 The Influence of Polar Pattern on Frequency Response
  6.7.8 Proximity Effect
  6.7.9 Acceptance Angle
  6.7.10 Random-Energy Response (RER)
  6.7.11 Random-Energy Efficiency (REE)
  6.7.12 Directivity Factor (DRF)
  6.7.13 Distance Factor (DSF)
  6.7.14 Variable Pattern Microphones
  6.7.15 Suggested Reading List
 6.8 Introduction to Loudspeaker drivers
  6.8.1 Introduction
  6.8.2 Ribbon Loudspeakers
  6.8.3 Moving Coil Loudspeakers
  6.8.4 Electrostatic Loudspeakers
 6.9 Moving coil loudspeaker drivers
  6.9.1 Introduction
  6.9.2 Resonance
  6.9.3 Electrical Impedance
  6.9.4 Thiele-Small Parameters
  6.9.5 Distortion and Klippel
  6.9.6 Suggested Reading List
 6.10 Loudspeaker acoustics
  6.10.1 Driver directivity
  6.10.2 Enclosures
  6.10.3 Other Issues
  6.10.4 Loudspeaker driver non-linearities
7 Electroacoustic Measurements
 7.1 Tools of the Trade
  7.1.1 Digital Multimeter
  7.1.2 True RMS Meter
  7.1.3 Oscilloscope
  7.1.4 Function Generators
  7.1.5 Automated Testing Equipment
  7.1.6 Swept Sine Tone
  7.1.7 MLS-Based Measurements
  7.1.8 Suggested Reading List
 7.2 Electrical Measurements
  7.2.1 Output impedance
  7.2.2 Input Impedance
  7.2.3 Gain
  7.2.4 Gain Linearity
  7.2.5 Magnitude Response
  7.2.6 Bandwidth
  7.2.7 Phase Response
  7.2.8 Group Delay
  7.2.9 Slew Rate
  7.2.10 Maximum Output
  7.2.11 Noise measurements
  7.2.12 Dynamic Range
  7.2.13 Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR or S/N Ratio)
  7.2.14 Equivalent Input Noise (EIN)
  7.2.15 Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
  7.2.16 Total Harmonic Distortion (THD)
  7.2.17 Total Harmonic Distortion + Noise (THD+N)
  7.2.18 Crosstalk
  7.2.19 Intermodulation Distortion (IMD)
  7.2.20 DC Offset
  7.2.21 Filter Q
  7.2.22 Impulse Response
  7.2.23 Cross-correlation
  7.2.24 Interaural Cross-correlation
  7.2.25 Suggested Reading List
 7.3 Loudspeaker Measurements
  7.3.1 Frequency Response
  7.3.2 Phase Response
  7.3.3 Distortion
  7.3.4 Off-Axis Response
  7.3.5 Power Response
  7.3.6 Impedance Curve
  7.3.7 Sensitivity
  7.3.8 Suggested Reading List
 7.4 Microphone Measurements
  7.4.1 Polar Pattern
  7.4.2 Frequency Response
  7.4.3 Phase Response
  7.4.4 Off-Axis Response
  7.4.5 Sensitivity
  7.4.6 Equivalent Noise Level
  7.4.7 Impedance
  7.4.8 Suggested Reading List
 7.5 Acoustical Measurements
  7.5.1 Room Modes
  7.5.2 Reflections
  7.5.3 Reflection and Absorbtion Coefficients
  7.5.4 Reverberation Time (RT60)
  7.5.5 Noise Level
  7.5.6 Sound Transmission
  7.5.7 Intelligibility
  7.5.8 Suggested Reading List
8 Digital Audio
 8.1 How to make a digital signal
  8.1.1 The basics of analog to digital conversion
  8.1.2 The basics of digital to analog conversion
  8.1.3 Aliasing
  8.1.4 Binary numbers and bits
  8.1.5 Two’s complement
  8.1.6 Suggested Reading List
 8.2 Quantization Error and Dither
  8.2.1 Dither
  8.2.2 What dither looks like
  8.2.3 What dither sounds like
  8.2.4 Further Details
  8.2.5 When to use dither
  8.2.6 Suggested Reading List
 8.3 Aliasing
  8.3.1 Antialiasing filters
  8.3.2 Suggested Reading List
 8.4 Delta-Sigma Conversion and 1-Bit Signals
  8.4.1 Filtering
  8.4.2 Suggested Reading List
 8.5 Digital Signal Transmission Protocols
  8.5.1 Introduction
  8.5.2 What’s being sent?
  8.5.3 Some more info about AES/EBU
  8.5.4 S/PDIF
  8.5.5 Some Terms That You Should Know...
  8.5.6 Jitter
  8.5.7 Suggested Reading List
 8.6 Jitter
  8.6.1 When to worry about jitter
  8.6.2 What causes jitter, and how to reduce it
  8.6.3 Suggested Reading List
 8.7 Fixed- vs. Floating Point
  8.7.1 Fixed Point
  8.7.2 Floating Point
  8.7.3 Comparison Between Systems
  8.7.4 Conversion Between Systems
  8.7.5 Suggested Reading List
 8.8 Noise Shaping
  8.8.1 Suggested Reading List
 8.9 High-Resolution Audio
  8.9.1 “What is “High-Resolution Audio?”
  8.9.2 Why High-Resolution audio?
  8.9.3 Is it worth it?
  8.9.4 Suggested Reading List
 8.10 Perceptual Coding
  8.10.1 Suggested Reading List
 8.11 Compact Disc
  8.11.1 Sampling rate
  8.11.2 Word length
  8.11.3 Storage capacity (recording time)
  8.11.4 Physical construction
  8.11.5 Eight-to-Fourteen Modulation (EFM)
  8.11.6 Suggested Reading List
 8.12 Hard Disk Recording
  8.12.1 Bandwidth and disk space
  8.12.2 Suggested Reading List
9 Digital Signal Processing
 9.1 Introduction to DSP
  9.1.1 Block Diagrams and Notation
  9.1.2 Normalized Frequency
  9.1.3 Suggested Reading List
 9.2 FFT’s, DFT’s and the Relationship Between the Time and Frequency Domains
  9.2.1 Fourier in a Nutshell
  9.2.2 Discrete Fourier Transforms
  9.2.3 A couple of more details on detail
  9.2.4 Redundancy in the DFT Result
  9.2.5 What’s the use?
  9.2.6 The math
  9.2.7 Suggested Reading List
 9.3 Windowing Functions
  9.3.1 Introduction to Rectangular Windows
  9.3.2 Spectral Leakage
  9.3.3 Rectangular Windows (Part 2)
  9.3.4 Hann
  9.3.5 Hamming
  9.3.6 Triangular
  9.3.7 Bartlett
  9.3.8 Bartlett-Hann
  9.3.9 Blackman
  9.3.10 Blackman-Harris
  9.3.11 Blackman-Nuttall
  9.3.12 Tukey
  9.3.13 More functions
  9.3.14 Comparisons
  9.3.15 One last little thing...
  9.3.16 Suggested Reading List
 9.4 FIR Filters
  9.4.1 Comb Filters
  9.4.2 Frequency Response Deviation
  9.4.3 Impulse Response vs. Frequency Response
  9.4.4 More complicated filters
  9.4.5 Suggested Reading List
 9.5 IIR Filters
  9.5.1 Comb Filters
  9.5.2 Danger!
  9.5.3 Biquadratic
  9.5.4 Allpass filters
  9.5.5 Suggested Reading List
 9.6 Convolution, Correlation and Coherence
  9.6.1 Convolution
  9.6.2 Autocorrelation
  9.6.3 Cross-correlation
  9.6.4 Correlation coefficient
  9.6.5 Coherence
  9.6.6 Suggested Reading List
 9.7 The z-domain
  9.7.1 Introduction
  9.7.2 Filter frequency response
  9.7.3 The z-plane
  9.7.4 Transfer function
  9.7.5 Calculating filters as polynomials
  9.7.6 Zeros
  9.7.7 Poles
  9.7.8 Suggested Reading List
 9.8 Digital Reverberation
  9.8.1 History
  9.8.2 Suggested Reading List
10 Audio Recording
 10.1 Levels and Metering
  10.1.1 Introduction
  10.1.2 Digital Gear in the PCM World
  10.1.3 Analog electronics
  10.1.4 Analog tape
  10.1.5 Meters
  10.1.6 Gain Management
  10.1.7 Phase and Correlation Meters
  10.1.8 Suggested Reading List
 10.2 Monitoring Configuration and Calibration
  10.2.1 Standard operating levels
  10.2.2 Channels are not Loudspeakers
  10.2.3 Bass management
  10.2.4 Configuration
  10.2.5 Calibration
  10.2.6 Suggested Reading List
 10.3 Introduction to Stereo Microphone Techniques
  10.3.1 Panning
  10.3.2 Coincident techniques (X-Y)
  10.3.3 Spaced techniques (A-B)
  10.3.4 Near-coincident techniques
  10.3.5 More complicated techniques
  10.3.6 Suggested Reading List
 10.4 General Response Characteristics of Microphone Pairs
  10.4.1 Phantom Images Revisited
  10.4.2 Interchannel Differences
  10.4.3 Summed power response
  10.4.4 Correlation and coherence
  10.4.5 Conclusions
 10.5 Matrixed Microphone Techniques
  10.5.1 MS
  10.5.2 Ambisonics
  10.5.3 Suggested Reading List
 10.6 Surround Microphone Technique
  10.6.1 Advantages to Surround
  10.6.2 Common pitfalls
  10.6.3 Fukada Tree
  10.6.4 OCT Surround
  10.6.5 OCT Front System + IRT Cross
  10.6.6 OCT Front System + Hamasaki Square
  10.6.7 Klepko Technique
  10.6.8 Corey / Martin Tree
  10.6.9 Michael Williams
  10.6.10 Martin Tree
  10.6.11 Suggested Reading List
 10.7 Time Code
  10.7.1 Introduction
  10.7.2 Frame Rates
  10.7.3 How to Count in Time Code
  10.7.4 SMPTE/EBU Time Code Formats
  10.7.5 Time Code Encoding
  10.7.6 Annex – Time Code Bit Assignments
  10.7.7 Suggested Reading List
11 Conclusions and Opinions
  11.0.8 Suggested Reading List
12 Reference Information
 12.1 ISO Frequency Centres
 12.2 Resistor Colour Codes
 12.3 Greek Alphabet
  12.3.1 Commonly used letters
13 Hints and tips
Bibliography
Index